A Golden Age in Islam(Abbasid Caliphate)
In the 8th century Middle East, a new dynasty seized control of one of the world’s greatest empires – the Islamic Caliphate. Though little remembered in the west today, the Abbasids reigned for five centuries. They oversaw an era of Islamic military dominance… city-building… brilliant scholarship, and technological innovation. It has come to be remembered as Islam’s ‘golden age’. This is the story of the Abbasid Caliphate. 632 AD. In the Arabian city of Medina, the prophet Muhammad lies dead. His followers, professing the new religion of Islam, sweep across the Arabian peninsula, uniting it under the rule of Abu Bakr, the first ‘caliph’, God’s deputy on earth.
Conquest and Civil War
Then they burst upon the world stage, taking on the two superpowers of the Middle East – the Eastern Roman and Sassanid Empires. Both are vulnerable after decades of war, and the Muslims wage a stunning campaign, winning victory after victory. By 651 they have overrun two-thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire, and almost all of the Sassanid Empire. But in 656, the third caliph, Uthman, is assassinated, sparking the first Muslim Civil War, or Fitna. Ali – cousin and son-in law of the Prophet Muhammad – has the support of the people. But he’s opposed by the governor of Syria – Uthman’s kinsman, Mu’awiya. Five years of bloodshed culminate in Ali’s assassination at Kufa. Mu’awiya emerges triumphant, and establishes a new Umayyad Caliphate. Further conquests help to forge one of the largest empires in history.
The Rise of Shi’ism
But it is riven by more civil war. One challenge comes from Husayn, son of Ali, grandson of the Prophet Muhammad. He opposes the succession of Mu’awiya’s son, Yazid.But in 680 he and his followers are defeated and killed at the Battle of Karbala.Supporters of Ali and his descendants will later become the Shiites.They still commemorate Husayn’s death each year, on the Day of Ashura. The vast Umayyad Caliphate continues to expand. But it contains serious internal divisions. Much of what we know about the Umayyad Caliphate comes from later sources, often hostile. But it seems clear that the small Arab, Muslim elite that dominated this great empire was increasingly unpopular with many of its subjects – including some of those later termed ‘dhimmi’. These were non-Muslims, including Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians, who were treated as an underclass, and made to pay extra tax.
The Abbasid Rebellion
Even those who did convert to Islam – known as ‘mawali’ – were often treated as second-class subjects. Decades of discontent were about to boil over. The symbol of Umayyad authority was their white banner. But in 747, a new symbol rises to challenge their rule – the black banners of the Abbasids. The Abbasids are an Arab family, descended from the Prophet Muhammad’s uncle al-Abbas, from whom they take their name. They and their supporters believe this blood tie to the Prophet gives them legitimate claim to the title of Caliph. Far more so than the Umayyads, whom the Abbasids later portray as decadent and despised. The Abbasids promise a return to ‘true Islam’, to correct teachings and moral leadership, and send missionaries and agents out across the Caliphate to spread their message.
The Frontier Ignites: The Abbasid Revolt in Eastern Iran
In 747, with the Caliphate once more racked by revolt and civil war, the Abbasids will seize their chance. In eastern Khorasan, a general named Abu Muslim – probably a Persian convert – launches a revolt, and takes the black banner of the Hashemites as his symbol. The Hashemites – descendants of Hashim – are the extended family of the Prophet, with the Abbasids prominent amongst them. This frontier region – today comprising north-eastern Iran and parts of Turkmenistan and Afghanistan – is particularly ripe for rebellion. Here Arabs and non-Arab converts live side-by-side. They intermarry, and fight alongside each other to defend the frontier. For many, the Umayyads are distant and unpopular overlords. What’s more, opposition has been stoked for decades by Hashemite agents and missionaries, who seek to topple the Umayyads, and replace them with one of their own. They have sowed the seeds of revolution.
The Battle of the Zab and The Abbasid Victory
So when Abu Muslim begins his revolt, he quickly attracts followers – Arabs, Persians and central Asians, many of whom are experienced warriors. And he proves a brilliant commander, winning a series of victories over Umayyad forces, and occupying Kufa, capital of Iraq, in 749. The Abbasids now assume leadership of this revolution – and the following year, their forces meet the army of the Umayyad Caliph, Marwan the Second, at the Zab River. Most of what we know about the battle that follows comes from Abbasid sources. Caliph Marwan appears to have been a brave but reckless commander – launching a head-on cavalry charge against the Abbasid line. Abbasid historians tell how their own troops, inspired by recent victories, stand fast. Their spear walls repel the cavalry; the attack ends in disaster.